Criteria and parameters of grammaticalization

The static or dynamic local relations with the reference point N^d are coded by verbs in Mandarin. shows this for a specific static relation.

.	qiáng+shàng	guà-zhe	yī-fu	huà
Mand	wall+top	hang-IMPF	one-CL.artifact	picture
	a picture hangs on the wall			(Li & Thompson 1989:822)

At the same time, the spatial region N^d/h is represented by the relational noun shàng, which takes N^d as its complement and as the determinans of a nominal compound.

The verb 在 zài (be.LOC) is the most general verb of a location at rest and functions as a full verb with the meaning ‘be [at N^d]’ in .

.	Tā	zài	nǎlǐ?
Mand	he	be.LOC	where
	Where is he?		(Wiktionary s.v. 在)

There are two constructions in which zài combines with the core verb of a clause. In the first, it precedes the core verb as a coverb with a purely locative function (Li & Thompson 1981:356; ).

.	Lǐ	xiānsheng	zài	Shànghǎi	xuéxí	fǎwén.
Mand	Li	mister	be.LOC	Shanghai	study	French
	Mr. Li studies French in Shanghai.					(Prince 2012 :6)

In the second construction, the syntagma [zài N^d] follows the core verb, which may even be a positional verb. The syntagma specifies the place of the position like a prepositional phrase ().

	Tā	tǎng	zài	chuáng-shàng	kàn	shū.
Mand	he	lie	be.LOC	bed-top	see	book
	He is lying in bed reading a book.

In this function, zài is grammaticalized to a locative preposition. It is yet at an intermediate stage of grammaticalization. For instance, it is not fully obligatory in locative constructions, as it is not needed, e.g., in .